Table 1 Summarized literature references by topic

Transcutaneous electrical neural stimulation

 Relief of hemiparetic spasticity by TENS is associated with improvement in reflex and voluntary motor functions

Levin et al. [60]

 Patterned sensory stimulation induces plasticity in reciprocal Ia inhibition in humans

Perez et al. [61]

 Electrical stimulation in treating spasticity resulting from spinal cord injury

Bajd et al. [62]

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation

 Electrical treatment of spasticity. Reflex tonic activity in hemiplegic patients and selected specific electrostimulation

Alfieri [64]

 Two theories of muscle strength augmentation using percutaneous electrical stimulation

Delitto et al. [65]

 Neuromuscular electrical stimulation-induced resistance training after SCI: a review of the Dudley protocol

Bickel et al. [66]

 Neuromuscular electrical stimulation in neurorehabilitation

Sheffler et al. [67]

 Electrical stimulation of wrist extensors in poststroke hemiplegia

Powell et al. [68]

Functional electrical stimulation

 Functional electrical stimulation therapy for restoration of motor function after spinal cord injury and stroke: a review

Marquez-Chin et al. [69]

 Functional electrical stimulation in spinal cord injury: from theory to practice

Martin et al. [70]

 Functional electrical stimulation and spinal cord injury

Ho et al. [71]

 Functional electrical stimulation post-spinal cord injury improves locomotion and increases afferent input into the central nervous system in rats

Beaumont et al. [72]

 Functional electrical stimulation for neuromuscular applications

Peckham et al. [73]

 Surface-stimulation technology for grasping and walking neuroprostheses: improving quality of life in stroke/spinal cord injury subjects with rapid prototyping and portable FES systems

Popovic et al. [74]

 An update on functional electrical stimulation after spinal cord injury

Gorman [75]

 Paradigms of lower extremity electrical stimulation training after spinal cord injury

Gorgey et al. [76]

 Transcutaneous functional electrical stimulation for grasping in subjects with cervical spinal cord injury

Mangold et al. [77]

 Influence of different rehabilitation therapy models on patient outcomes: hand function therapy in individuals with incomplete SCI

Kapadia et al. [78]

 Functional electrical stimulation therapy of voluntary grasping versus only conventional rehabilitation for patients with subacute incomplete tetraplegia: a randomized clinical trial

Popovic et al. [79]

 A noninvasive neuroprosthesis augments hand grasp force in individuals with cervical spinal cord injury: the functional and therapeutic effects

Thorsen et al. [80]

 A clinically meaningful training effect in walking speed using functional electrical stimulation for motor-incomplete spinal cord injury

Street et al. [81]

 Implanted functional electrical stimulation: an alternative for standing and walking in pediatric spinal cord injury

Johnston et al. [82]

 Restoration of gait by functional electrical stimulation in paraplegic patients: a modified programme of treatment

Maležič et al. [83]

 A randomized trial of functional electrical stimulation for walking in incomplete spinal cord injury: effects on walking competency

Kapadia et al. [84]

 Therapeutic effects of functional electrical stimulation on gait, motor recovery, and motor cortex in stroke survivors

Shendkar et al. [85]

 The effectiveness of functional electrical stimulation for the treatment of shoulder subluxation and shoulder pain in hemiplegic patients: a randomized controlled trial

Koyuncu et al. [86]

 Role of electrical stimulation for rehabilitation and regeneration after spinal cord injury: an overview

Hamid et al. [51]

 Functional electrical stimulation of dorsiflexor muscle: effects on dorsiflexor strength, plantarflexor spasticity, and motor recovery in stroke patients

Sabut et al. [87]

 The efficacy of electrical stimulation in reducing the post-stroke spasticity: a randomized controlled study

Sahin et al. [88]

 Functional electric stimulation-assisted rowing: increasing cardiovascular fitness through functional electric stimulation rowing training in persons with spinal cord injury

Wheeler et al. [89]

 Efficacy of electrical stimulation for spinal fusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Akhter et al. [90]

 Functional electrical stimulation therapies after spinal cord injury

Gater et al. [91]

 An externally powered, multichannel, implantable stimulator-telemeter for control of paralyzed muscle

Smith et al. [92]

 Implanted functional neuromuscular stimulation systems for individuals with cervical spinal cord injuries: clinical case reports

Triolo et al. [93]

 Efficacy of an implanted neuroprosthesis for restoring hand grasp in tetraplegia: a multicenter study

Peckham et al. [94]

 Factors influencing body composition in persons with spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional study

Spungen et al. [96]

 The effects of trunk stimulation on bimanual seated workspace

Kukke et al. [97]

 Effects of stimulating hip and trunk muscles on seated stability, posture, and reach after spinal cord injury

Triolo et al. [98]

 The effects of combined trunk and gluteal neuromuscular electrical stimulation on posture and tissue health in spinal cord injury

Wu et al. [99]

 Long-term performance and user satisfaction with implanted neuroprostheses for upright mobility after paraplegia: 2- to 14-year follow-up

Triolo et al. [101]

 An approach for the cooperative control of FES with a powered exoskeleton during level walking for persons with paraplegia

Ha et al. [102]

 Functional neuromuscular stimulator for short-distance ambulation by certain thoracic-level spinal-cord-injured paraplegics

Graupe et al. [103]

Phrenic nerve pacing

 Diaphragm pacing for respiratory insufficiency

Chervin et al. [105]

 Diaphragm pacing by electrical stimulation of the phrenic nerve

Glenn et al. [106]

 Multicenter review of diaphragm pacing in spinal cord injury: successful not only in weaning from ventilators but also in bridging to independent respiration

Posluszny et al. [107]

 Successful reinnervation of the diaphragm after intercostal to phrenic nerve neurotization in patients with high spinal cord injury

Nandra et al. [108]

Spinal cord stimulation

 Restoration of sensorimotor functions after spinal cord injury

Dietz et al. [110]

 Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation restores hand and arm function after spinal cord injury

Inanici et al. [111]

 Transcutaneous electrical spinal stimulation promotes long-term recovery of upper extremity function in chronic tetraplegia

Inanici et al. [112]

 Transcutaneous electrical spinal-cord stimulation in humans

Gerasimenko et al. [113]

 Non-invasive activation of cervical spinal networks after severe paralysis

Gad et al. [114]

 Weight bearing over-ground stepping in an exoskeleton with non-invasive spinal cord neuromodulation after motor complete paraplegia

Gad et al. [115]

 An autonomic neuroprosthesis: noninvasive electrical spinal cord stimulation restores autonomic cardiovascular function in individuals with spinal cord injury

Phillips et al. [116]

 Transcutaneous spinal cord stimulation and motor rehabilitation in spinal cord injury: a systematic review

Megia Garcia et al. [117]

 Configuration of electrical spinal cord stimulation through real-time processing of gait kinematics

Capogrosso et al. [119]

 Targeted neurotechnology restores walking in humans with spinal cord injury

Wagner et al. [120]

 Spatiotemporal neuromodulation therapies engaging muscle synergies improve motor control after spinal cord injury

Wenger et al. [121]

 Cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction in spinal cord injury: epidemiology, diagnosis, and management

Wecht et al. [124]

Autonomic neuromodulation

 New approaches for treating atrial fibrillation: focus on autonomic modulation

Sohinki et al. [125]

 Neuromodulation for the treatment of heart rhythm disorders

Waldron et al. [126]

 Low-level vagus nerve stimulation attenuates myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury by antioxidative stress and antiapoptosis reactions in canines

Chen et al. [127]

 Closed-loop neuromodulation restores network connectivity and motor control after spinal cord injury

Ganzer et al. [128]

 Acute cardiovascular responses to vagus nerve stimulation after experimental spinal cord injury

Sachdeva et al. [129]

 Vagus nerve stimulation paired with rehabilitative training enhances motor recovery after bilateral spinal cord injury to cervical forelimb motor pools

Darrow et al. [130]

 Cross-modal plasticity revealed by electrotactile stimulation of the tongue in the congenitally blind

Ptito et al. [131]

 Sustained cortical and subcortical neuromodulation induced by electrical tongue stimulation

Wildenberg et al. [132]

 High-resolution fMRI detects neuromodulation of individual brainstem nuclei by electrical tongue stimulation in balance-impaired individuals

Wildenberg et al. [133]

 Electrical tongue stimulation normalizes activity within the motion-sensitive brain network in balance-impaired subjects as revealed by group independent component analysis

Wildenberg et al. [134]

 Altered connectivity of the balance processing network after tongue stimulation in balance-impaired individuals

Wildenberg et al. [135]

 Feasibility of sensory tongue stimulation combined with task-specific therapy in people with spinal cord injury: a case study

Chisholm et al. [136]

 Cranial nerve non-invasive neuromodulation improves gait and balance in stroke survivors: a pilot randomised controlled trial

Galea et al. [137]

 A prospective, multicenter study to assess the safety and efficacy of translingual neurostimulation plus physical therapy for the treatment of a chronic balance deficit due to mild‐to‐moderate traumatic brain injury

Ptito et al. [138]

Sacral nerve stimulation

 Design and implementation of low-power neuromodulation S/W based on MSP430

Hong et al. [139]

 Electrical stimulation of sacral dermatomes can suppress aberrant urethral reflexes in felines with chronic spinal cord injury

McCoin et al. [140]

 Neuromodulation for restoration of urinary and bowel control

Raina [141]

 Early sacral neuromodulation prevents urinary incontinence after complete spinal cord injury

Sievert et al. [142]

 Bladder neuromodulation in acute spinal cord injury via transcutaneous tibial nerve stimulation: cystometrogram and autonomic nervous system evidence from a randomized control pilot trial

Stampas et al. [143]

 Lower urinary tract dysfunction in the neurological patient: clinical assessment and management

Panicker et al. [144]

Neuromodulation by surface electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves for reduction of detrusor overactivity in patients with spinal cord injury: a pilot study

Ojha et al. [145]

Galvanic vestibular stimulation

 Vestibulospinal responses in motor incomplete spinal cord injury

Liechti et al. [146]

 Impaired scaling of responses to vestibular stimulation in incomplete SCI

Wydenkeller et al. [147]

 Does galvanic vestibular stimulation decrease spasticity in clinically complete spinal cord injury?

Čobeljić et al. [148]

Transcranial direct current stimulation

 Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

Lefaucheur et al. [149]

 Cortical vs. afferent stimulation as an adjunct to functional task practice training: a randomized, comparative pilot study in people with cervical spinal cord injury

Gomes-Osman et al. [150]

 Improved grasp function with transcranial direct current stimulation in chronic spinal cord injury

Cortes et al. [151]

 Effectiveness of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation to improve muscle strength and motor functionality after incomplete spinal cord injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis

de Araújo et al. [152]

 Transcranial direct current stimulation is not effective in the motor strength and gait recovery following motor incomplete spinal cord injury during Lokomat® gait training

Kumru et al. [153]

 Low-frequency rectangular pulse is superior to middle frequency alternating current stimulation in cycling of people with spinal cord injury

Szecsi et al. [155]

 Oscillating field stimulation for complete spinal cord injury in humans: a phase 1 trial

Shapiro et al. [156]

 Oscillating field stimulation promotes spinal cord remyelination by inducing differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells after spinal cord injury

Zhang et al. [157]

 Epidural oscillating field stimulation as an effective therapeutic approach in combination therapy for spinal cord injury

Bacova et al. [158]